Technical facilities and new drugs invested for tuberculosis prevention

Technical facilities and new drugs invested for tuberculosis prevention

The Central Committee for Propaganda in cooperation with the Ministry of Health, National Lung Hospital held a workshop on tuberculosis prevention in Vietnam on 22nd March 2011. According WHO’s report, in 2010 the rate of newly tuberculosis infected patients has been reducing since 2004 yet there are 9.4 million of new cases, resulting in 1.3 million deaths yearly. Nearly 1.4 million people are infected with both TB and HIV.

Vietnam is ranked 12^th on the WHO list of 22 countries with the highest number of tuberculosis patients and 14^th on the list of 27 countries having a lot of anti-drug tuberculosis patients in the world. Responding to this situation, Ministry of Health is enhancing all resources in order to gradually put into use new technologies for diagnosis, anti-tuberculosis drugs for treatment, new vaccine for tuberculosis prevention, helping to make Vietnamese tuberculosis prevention more efficiently.

Phuong Anh (Nhan dan newspaper, 3/2011)

The Central Committee for Propaganda in cooperation with the Ministry of Health, National Lung Hospital held a workshop on tuberculosis prevention in Vietnam on 22nd March 2011. According WHO’s report, in 2010 the rate of newly tuberculosis infected patients has been reducing since 2004 yet there are 9.4 million of new cases, resulting in 1.3 million deaths yearly. Nearly 1.4 million people are infected with both TB and HIV.

Vietnam is ranked 12^th on the WHO list of 22 countries with the highest number of tuberculosis patients and 14^th on the list of 27 countries having a lot of anti-drug tuberculosis patients in the world. Responding to this situation, Ministry of Health is enhancing all resources in order to gradually put into use new technologies for diagnosis, anti-tuberculosis drugs for treatment, new vaccine for tuberculosis prevention, helping to make Vietnamese tuberculosis prevention more efficiently.

Phuong Anh (Nhan dan newspaper, 3/2011)

VN seeks higher rank in world’s science

VN seeks higher rank in world’s science

Viet Nam will work to narrow its scientific and technological gap with the world in some key fields by 2020, according to a Government project.

To realize the above target, the Government will give top priority to enhancing the competence of scientists and related managers while encouraging the organization of training courses partnered with foreign competent partners.

The Government will also facilitate scientists’ participation in R&D programs launched by agencies of the United Nations, APEC, ASEM, ASEAN, and other regional and international professional associations.

Other solutions will focus on scientific and technological renovation to sharpen the competitive edge of local products and assisting businesses to purchase patents in some prioritized areas, according to the project.

By mid 2010, Viet Nam had nearly 1,500 R&D institutes and centers with 2.6 million staffers, of whom 60,000 have directly engaged in R&D activities, data shows.

Viet Nam has established scientific and technological cooperation with 70 countries and territories around the world. It has signed and implemented over 80 related governmental or ministerial-level agreements and is currently a member of nearly 100 regional and international science and technology organizations. Some 540 international deals and contracts have been undertaken in Viet Nam since 2000.

Source: Government web portral, 19/5/2011

Viet Nam will work to narrow its scientific and technological gap with the world in some key fields by 2020, according to a Government project.

To realize the above target, the Government will give top priority to enhancing the competence of scientists and related managers while encouraging the organization of training courses partnered with foreign competent partners.

The Government will also facilitate scientists’ participation in R&D programs launched by agencies of the United Nations, APEC, ASEM, ASEAN, and other regional and international professional associations.

Other solutions will focus on scientific and technological renovation to sharpen the competitive edge of local products and assisting businesses to purchase patents in some prioritized areas, according to the project.

By mid 2010, Viet Nam had nearly 1,500 R&D institutes and centers with 2.6 million staffers, of whom 60,000 have directly engaged in R&D activities, data shows.

Viet Nam has established scientific and technological cooperation with 70 countries and territories around the world. It has signed and implemented over 80 related governmental or ministerial-level agreements and is currently a member of nearly 100 regional and international science and technology organizations. Some 540 international deals and contracts have been undertaken in Viet Nam since 2000.

Source: Government web portral, 19/5/2011

Stainless Steel Multipurpose Wheelchair KT-X05

Stainless Steel Multipurpose Wheelchair KT-X05

Product Details - Adjustable backrest, tilt angle from 900 to 1800. - Adjustable footrests from 1050 to 1800 - Have a removable tray - Overall dimension: Length: 1,000mm, Width: 630mm, Height: 1,130mm; Weight: 25kg - Seat size: Width: 400mm, Depth: 450mm, High: 700mm - Folded chair width: 320mm - Removable and adjustable footrests - Stainless steel frame tube: diameter: 22.2mm, thickness: 11.2mm; - Seat cushion available in blue, dark blue, dark red, green - Plastic rims and solid tires - Plastic rims and solid tires

Product Details - Adjustable backrest, tilt angle from 900 to 1800. - Adjustable footrests from 1050 to 1800 - Have a removable tray - Overall dimension: Length: 1,000mm, Width: 630mm, Height: 1,130mm; Weight: 25kg - Seat size: Width: 400mm, Depth: 450mm, High: 700mm - Folded chair width: 320mm - Removable and adjustable footrests - Stainless steel frame tube: diameter: 22.2mm, thickness: 11.2mm; - Seat cushion available in blue, dark blue, dark red, green - Plastic rims and solid tires - Plastic rims and solid tires

Know the real milk story (Opinion)

Know the real milk story (Opinion)

(NaturalNews) Throughout history, other mammals have supplied mankind with delicious, nutrient dense dairy foods. These included fresh cream, milk, curds & whey, yogurt, kefir, cheeses & butter. Man-made refineries that manipulate these animals and process their milk products have highly altered these once superfoods. Well educated consumers choose raw, grass-fed milk and dairy products.

Around the world people have relied upon naturally fermented milk from all different types of animals for a key nutrition source. These milk producing animals include cows, sheep, goats, yaks, water buffalo, & reindeer. This fermented milk provides highly bioavailable protein, enzymes, beneficial lactobacillus probiotics, vitamin K2, and other nutrients.

Up until the 19th century, most people drank fermented raw milk. When raw milk is left out it actually ferments with beneficial lactic acid bacteria such as acidophilus. This fermentation process helps to preserve the milk and gives it a tasty sour flavor. Pasteurized milk does not naturally ferment due to the lack of beneficial microorganisms. Instead, it spoils with dangerous microbes.

Industrialized Farming

In the early 19th century these patterns began to change. Farmers saw big business opportunities in providing larger dairy yields for city folk, who had no other access to dairy products. Individuals, who were born and raised in the city, had lost the art of natural fermentation and were unfamiliar with the sour taste.

The growing city populations led to a greater increase in dairy production. This led farmers to begin to look for new methods to produce larger cows who could produce more milk. Specific breading patterns and the involvement of grain-feeds began to spring up. These methods greatly increased dairy yields but reduced the quality and nutrient density of the finished products.

Cows are meant to eat natural grass where they benefit from the chlorophyll, dense array of vitamins & minerals, essential fats and living microorganisms. Taking the roughage out of the cows' diets kills off many probiotic species while encouraging bad strains to grow in rampant amounts. Feeding these animals grains produces an increase in milk production, but it also creates a very acidic environment in the cow's digestive system.

This low pH is a perfect breeding ground for pathogenic bacteria such as E coli. The more grains a cow eats the greater the likelihood of infection. Milk borne epidemics began to increase to the point that a successful pasteurization campaign was put into action by the end of the 19th century.

Pasteurization Destroys the Life of the Milk

The pasteurization process destroys all the bacteria in the milk. This includes beneficial lactobacillus strains as well as pathogenic E Coli and others. It also destroys enzymes and denatures amino acids. This makes the milk devoid of "living nutrients." The heavy grain diet of the cow makes the milk very acidic and inflammatory. This milk also contains up to 52 different anti-biotics, pesticides and hormones used to increase milk production.

Homogenization burst onto the scene later when people demanded smooth milk that was even in fat levels throughout. This process is particularly harmful because it creates a noxious enzyme called xanthine oxidase (XO). XO passes through the walls of the digestive system and goes directly into the bloodstream. XO is highly reactive and is known to damage and inflame the arterial tissue. This inflammatory process produces arterial plaque.

Individuals in the industrialized countries completely lost touch with the knowledge and techniques of proper fermentation. Soon enough it was considered normal to drink pasteurized, homogenized dairy from grain-fed cows that were shot up with anti-biotics and hormones. Over the last 5 years consumers have begun to become educated on the tremendous nutrition present in fermented raw milk from grass-fed cows.

Sources for this Article Include:

http://www.kitchenstewardship.com/2...
http://www.rense.com/general26/milk.htm
Mendelson A. "The Astonishing Story of Real Milk," Mother Earth News, October/November 2011. Pg 34-39.


About the author:
Dr. David Jockers owns and operates Exodus Health Center in Kennesaw, Ga. He is a Maximized Living doctor. His expertise is in weight loss, customized nutrition & exercise, & structural corrective chiropractic care. For more information go to www.exodushc.com To find a Maximized Living doctor near you go to www.maximizedliving.com

(NaturalNews) Throughout history, other mammals have supplied mankind with delicious, nutrient dense dairy foods. These included fresh cream, milk, curds & whey, yogurt, kefir, cheeses & butter. Man-made refineries that manipulate these animals and process their milk products have highly altered these once superfoods. Well educated consumers choose raw, grass-fed milk and dairy products.

Around the world people have relied upon naturally fermented milk from all different types of animals for a key nutrition source. These milk producing animals include cows, sheep, goats, yaks, water buffalo, & reindeer. This fermented milk provides highly bioavailable protein, enzymes, beneficial lactobacillus probiotics, vitamin K2, and other nutrients.

Up until the 19th century, most people drank fermented raw milk. When raw milk is left out it actually ferments with beneficial lactic acid bacteria such as acidophilus. This fermentation process helps to preserve the milk and gives it a tasty sour flavor. Pasteurized milk does not naturally ferment due to the lack of beneficial microorganisms. Instead, it spoils with dangerous microbes.

Industrialized Farming

In the early 19th century these patterns began to change. Farmers saw big business opportunities in providing larger dairy yields for city folk, who had no other access to dairy products. Individuals, who were born and raised in the city, had lost the art of natural fermentation and were unfamiliar with the sour taste.

The growing city populations led to a greater increase in dairy production. This led farmers to begin to look for new methods to produce larger cows who could produce more milk. Specific breading patterns and the involvement of grain-feeds began to spring up. These methods greatly increased dairy yields but reduced the quality and nutrient density of the finished products.

Cows are meant to eat natural grass where they benefit from the chlorophyll, dense array of vitamins & minerals, essential fats and living microorganisms. Taking the roughage out of the cows' diets kills off many probiotic species while encouraging bad strains to grow in rampant amounts. Feeding these animals grains produces an increase in milk production, but it also creates a very acidic environment in the cow's digestive system.

This low pH is a perfect breeding ground for pathogenic bacteria such as E coli. The more grains a cow eats the greater the likelihood of infection. Milk borne epidemics began to increase to the point that a successful pasteurization campaign was put into action by the end of the 19th century.

Pasteurization Destroys the Life of the Milk

The pasteurization process destroys all the bacteria in the milk. This includes beneficial lactobacillus strains as well as pathogenic E Coli and others. It also destroys enzymes and denatures amino acids. This makes the milk devoid of "living nutrients." The heavy grain diet of the cow makes the milk very acidic and inflammatory. This milk also contains up to 52 different anti-biotics, pesticides and hormones used to increase milk production.

Homogenization burst onto the scene later when people demanded smooth milk that was even in fat levels throughout. This process is particularly harmful because it creates a noxious enzyme called xanthine oxidase (XO). XO passes through the walls of the digestive system and goes directly into the bloodstream. XO is highly reactive and is known to damage and inflame the arterial tissue. This inflammatory process produces arterial plaque.

Individuals in the industrialized countries completely lost touch with the knowledge and techniques of proper fermentation. Soon enough it was considered normal to drink pasteurized, homogenized dairy from grain-fed cows that were shot up with anti-biotics and hormones. Over the last 5 years consumers have begun to become educated on the tremendous nutrition present in fermented raw milk from grass-fed cows.

Sources for this Article Include:

http://www.kitchenstewardship.com/2...
http://www.rense.com/general26/milk.htm
Mendelson A. "The Astonishing Story of Real Milk," Mother Earth News, October/November 2011. Pg 34-39.


About the author:
Dr. David Jockers owns and operates Exodus Health Center in Kennesaw, Ga. He is a Maximized Living doctor. His expertise is in weight loss, customized nutrition & exercise, & structural corrective chiropractic care. For more information go to www.exodushc.com To find a Maximized Living doctor near you go to www.maximizedliving.com

Nanotubes and their Applications

Nanotubes and their Applications

The properties of nanotubes have caused researchers and companies to consider using them in several fields. For example, because carbon nanotubes have the highest strength to weight ratio of any known material, researchers at NASA are combining carbon nanotubes with other materials into composites as shown in the photo below that can be used to build lightweight spacecraft.

Photo courtesy of NASA

Another property of nanotubes is that they can easily penetrate membrances such as cell walls. In fact, nanotubes long, narrow shape make them look like miniature needles, so it makes sense that they can function like a needle at the cellular level. Medical researchers are using this property by attaching molecules that are attracted to cancer cells to nanotubes to deliver drugs directly to diseased cells.

Another interesting property of carbon nanotubes is that their electrical resistance changes significantly when other molecules attach themselves to the carbon atoms. Companies are using this property to develop sensors that can detect chemical vapors such as carbon monoxide or biological molecules.

These are just a few of the potential uses of carbon nanotubes The following survey of carbon nanotube applications introduces these and many other uses.

A survey of carbon nanotube applications under development:

Researchers and companies are working to use carbon nanotubes in various fields. The list below introduces many of these uses. Click on any of the links below to go to a detailed explanation.

Nanotubes bound to an antibody that is produced by chickens have been shown to be useful in lab tests to destroy breast cancer tumors. The antibody carrying nanotubes are attracted to proteins produced by a one type of breast cancer cell. Then the nanotubes absorb light from an infrared laser, incinerating the nanotubes and the tumor they are attached to.

Researchers are developing materials, such as a carbon nanotube based composite developed by NASA that bends with when a voltage is applied, that will need only an electrical voltage to change the shape (morphing) of aircraft wings and other structures. This video from NASA gives you an idea of what a future morphing aircraft might look like.

Longer lasting concrete, researchers have found that carbon nanotubes can fill the voids that occur in conventionial concrete. Because it's these voids that allow water to penetrate into concrete, resulting in the formation of cracks; including nanotubes in the mix stops the cracks from forming.

Lightweight windmill blades made with an epoxy containing carbon nanotubes. The strength and low weight provided by the use of nanotube filled epoxy allows longer windmill blades to be used. This increases the amount of electricity generated by each windmill.

Using carbon nanotubes as the pores in reverse osmosis membranes. This can decrease the power needed to run reverse osmosis desalination plants because water molecules pass through carbon nanotubes more easily than through other types of nanopores. This is because the inside walls of the nanotubes are much smoother than the walls of other types of nanopores.

Aircraft using carbon nanotubes to increase strength and flexibility in highly stressed components.

Nanotube electodes in thermocells that generate electricity from waste heat.

Inexpensive nanotube based sensor that detects bacteria in drinking water. Antibodies sensitive to the particular bacteria are bound to the nanotubes, which are then deposited onto a paper strip. When the bacteria is present it attaches to the antibodies, changing the spacing between the nanotubes and the resistance of the paper strip containing the nanotubes.

Combining carbon nanotubes, bucky-balls and polymers to produce inexpensive solar cells that can be formed by simply painting a surface.

A lightweight, low power anti-icing system using carbon nanotubes in a layer coated onto aircraft wing surfaces.

Using gold tipped carbon nanotubes to trap oil drops polluting water.

Building transistors from carbon nanotubes to enable minimum transistor dimensions of a few nanometers and developing techniques to manufacture integrated circuits built with nanotube transistors.

Using nanotubes as a cellular scale needle to deliver quantum dots and proteins into cancer cells.

Ultracapacitors using nanotubes that may do even better than batteries in hybrid cars.

Stronger bicycle components made by adding carbon nanotubes to a matrix of carbon fibers.

Improve the healing process for broken bones by providing a carbon nanotube scaffold for new bone material to grow on.

Sensors using carbon nanotube detection elements capable of detecting a range of chemical vapors. These sensors depend upon the fact that the resistance of a carbon nanotube changes in the presence of a chemical vapor.

Static dissipative plastic molding compounds containing nanotubes that can be used to make parts such as automobile fenders that can be electrostatically painted.

understandingnano.com

The properties of nanotubes have caused researchers and companies to consider using them in several fields. For example, because carbon nanotubes have the highest strength to weight ratio of any known material, researchers at NASA are combining carbon nanotubes with other materials into composites as shown in the photo below that can be used to build lightweight spacecraft.

Photo courtesy of NASA

Another property of nanotubes is that they can easily penetrate membrances such as cell walls. In fact, nanotubes long, narrow shape make them look like miniature needles, so it makes sense that they can function like a needle at the cellular level. Medical researchers are using this property by attaching molecules that are attracted to cancer cells to nanotubes to deliver drugs directly to diseased cells.

Another interesting property of carbon nanotubes is that their electrical resistance changes significantly when other molecules attach themselves to the carbon atoms. Companies are using this property to develop sensors that can detect chemical vapors such as carbon monoxide or biological molecules.

These are just a few of the potential uses of carbon nanotubes The following survey of carbon nanotube applications introduces these and many other uses.

A survey of carbon nanotube applications under development:

Researchers and companies are working to use carbon nanotubes in various fields. The list below introduces many of these uses. Click on any of the links below to go to a detailed explanation.

Nanotubes bound to an antibody that is produced by chickens have been shown to be useful in lab tests to destroy breast cancer tumors. The antibody carrying nanotubes are attracted to proteins produced by a one type of breast cancer cell. Then the nanotubes absorb light from an infrared laser, incinerating the nanotubes and the tumor they are attached to.

Researchers are developing materials, such as a carbon nanotube based composite developed by NASA that bends with when a voltage is applied, that will need only an electrical voltage to change the shape (morphing) of aircraft wings and other structures. This video from NASA gives you an idea of what a future morphing aircraft might look like.

Longer lasting concrete, researchers have found that carbon nanotubes can fill the voids that occur in conventionial concrete. Because it's these voids that allow water to penetrate into concrete, resulting in the formation of cracks; including nanotubes in the mix stops the cracks from forming.

Lightweight windmill blades made with an epoxy containing carbon nanotubes. The strength and low weight provided by the use of nanotube filled epoxy allows longer windmill blades to be used. This increases the amount of electricity generated by each windmill.

Using carbon nanotubes as the pores in reverse osmosis membranes. This can decrease the power needed to run reverse osmosis desalination plants because water molecules pass through carbon nanotubes more easily than through other types of nanopores. This is because the inside walls of the nanotubes are much smoother than the walls of other types of nanopores.

Aircraft using carbon nanotubes to increase strength and flexibility in highly stressed components.

Nanotube electodes in thermocells that generate electricity from waste heat.

Inexpensive nanotube based sensor that detects bacteria in drinking water. Antibodies sensitive to the particular bacteria are bound to the nanotubes, which are then deposited onto a paper strip. When the bacteria is present it attaches to the antibodies, changing the spacing between the nanotubes and the resistance of the paper strip containing the nanotubes.

Combining carbon nanotubes, bucky-balls and polymers to produce inexpensive solar cells that can be formed by simply painting a surface.

A lightweight, low power anti-icing system using carbon nanotubes in a layer coated onto aircraft wing surfaces.

Using gold tipped carbon nanotubes to trap oil drops polluting water.

Building transistors from carbon nanotubes to enable minimum transistor dimensions of a few nanometers and developing techniques to manufacture integrated circuits built with nanotube transistors.

Using nanotubes as a cellular scale needle to deliver quantum dots and proteins into cancer cells.

Ultracapacitors using nanotubes that may do even better than batteries in hybrid cars.

Stronger bicycle components made by adding carbon nanotubes to a matrix of carbon fibers.

Improve the healing process for broken bones by providing a carbon nanotube scaffold for new bone material to grow on.

Sensors using carbon nanotube detection elements capable of detecting a range of chemical vapors. These sensors depend upon the fact that the resistance of a carbon nanotube changes in the presence of a chemical vapor.

Static dissipative plastic molding compounds containing nanotubes that can be used to make parts such as automobile fenders that can be electrostatically painted.

understandingnano.com

Measuring the electromagnetic spectrum

Measuring the electromagnetic spectrum

You actually know more about it than you may think! The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is just a name that scientists give a bunch of types of radiation when they want to talk about them as a group. Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes-- visible light that comes from a lamp in your house and radio waves that come from a radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation. Other examples of EM radiation are microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays. Hotter, more energetic objects and events create higher energy radiation than cool objects. Only extremely hot objects or particles moving at very high velocities can create high-energy radiation like X-rays and gamma-rays.

Here are the different types of radiation in the EM spectrum, in order from lowest energy to highest:

	Radio: Yes, this is the same kind of energy that radio stations emit into the air for your boom box to capture and turn into your favorite Mozart, Madonna, or Justin Timberlake tunes. But radio waves are also emitted by other things ... such as stars and gases in space. You may not be able to dance to what these objects emit, but you can use it to learn what they are made of.
	Microwaves: They will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes! Microwaves in space are used by astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies, and our own Milky Way!
	Infrared: Our skin emits infrared light, which is why we can be seen in the dark by someone using night vision goggles. In space, IR light maps the dust between stars. Visible: Yes, this is the part that our eyes see. Visible radiation is emitted by everything from fireflies to light bulbs to stars ... also by fast-moving particles hitting other particles. Ultraviolet: We know that the Sun is a source of ultraviolet (or UV) radiation, because it is the UV rays that cause our skin to burn! Stars and other "hot" objects in space emit UV radiation.
	X-rays: Your doctor uses them to look at your bones and your dentist to look at your teeth. Hot gases in the Universe also emit X-rays .
	Gamma-rays: Radioactive materials (some natural and others made by man in things like nuclear power plants) can emit gamma-rays. Big particle accelerators that scientists use to help them understand what matter is made of can sometimes generate gamma-rays. But the biggest gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe! It makes gamma radiation in all kinds of ways.

A Radio Wave is not a Gamma-Ray, a Microwave is not an X-ray ... or is it?

We may think that radio waves are completely different physical objects or events than gamma-rays. They are produced in very different ways, and we detect them in different ways. But are they really different things? The answer is 'no'. Radio waves, visible light, X-rays, and all the other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are fundamentally the same thing. They are all electromagnetic radiation.

Radio waves, visible light, X-rays, and all the other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are fundamentally the same thing, electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic radiation can be described in terms of a stream of photons, which are massless particles each traveling in a wave-like pattern and moving at the speed of light. Each photon contains a certain amount (or bundle) of energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of these photons. The only difference between the various types of electromagnetic radiation is the amount of energy found in the photons. Radio waves have photons with low energies, microwaves have a little more energy than radio waves, infrared has still more, then visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and ... the most energetic of all ... gamma-rays.

Actually, the electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of energy, wavelength, or frequency. Each way of thinking about the EM spectrum is related to the others in a precise mathematical way. So why do we have three ways of describing things, each with a different set of physical units? After all, frequency is measured in cycles per second (which is called a Hertz), wavelength is measured in meters, and energy is measured in electron volts.

The electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of energy, wavelength, or frequency.

The answer is that scientists don't like to use big numbers when they don't have to. It is much easier to say or write "two kilometers or 2 km" than "two thousand meters or 2,000 m". So generally, scientists use whatever units are easiest for whatever they are working with. In radio astronomy, astronomers tend to use wavelengths or frequencies. This is because most of the radio part of the EM spectrum falls in the range from about 1 cm to 1 km (30 gigahertz (GHz) to 100 kilohertz (kHz)). The radio is a very broad part of the EM spectrum. Infrared astronomers also use wavelength to describe their part of the EM spectrum. They tend to use microns (or millionths of meters) for wavelengths, so that they can say their part of the EM spectrum falls in the range 1 to 100 microns. Optical astronomers use wavelengths as well. Scientists use both angstroms (0.00000001 cm, or 10 ^-8 cm in scientific notation) and nanometers (0.0000001, or 10^-7, cm). In the newer "SI" version of the metric system, we think of visible light in units of nanometers or 0.000000001 meters (10^-9 m). In this system, the violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red light we know so well has wavelengths between 400 and 700 nanometers. This range is only a small part of the entire EM spectrum, so you can tell that the light we see is just a little fraction of all the EM radiation around us! By the time you get to the ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray regions of the EM spectrum, lengths have become too tiny to think about any more. So scientists usually refer to these photons by their energies, which are measured in electron volts. Ultraviolet radiation falls in the range from a few electron volts (eV) to about 100 eV. X-ray photons have energies in the range 100 eV to 100,000 eV (or 100 keV). Gamma-rays then are all the photons with energies greater than 100 keV.

Show me a chart of the wavelength, frequency, and energy regimes of the spectrum !

Why Do We Have to Go to Space to See All of the Electromagnetic Spectrum?

Electromagnetic radiation from space is unable to reach the surface of the Earth except at a very few wavelengths, such as the visible spectrum, radio frequencies, and some ultraviolet wavelengths. Astronomers can get above enough of the Earth's atmosphere to observe at some infrared wavelengths from mountain tops or by flying their telescopes in an aircraft. Experiments can also be taken up to altitudes as high as 35 km by balloons which can operate for months. Rocket flights can take instruments all the way above the Earth's atmosphere for just a few minutes before they fall back to Earth, but a great many important first results in astronomy and astrophysics came from just those few minutes of observations. For long-term observations, however, it is best to have your detector on an orbiting satellite ... and get above it all!

imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov

You actually know more about it than you may think! The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is just a name that scientists give a bunch of types of radiation when they want to talk about them as a group. Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes-- visible light that comes from a lamp in your house and radio waves that come from a radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation. Other examples of EM radiation are microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays. Hotter, more energetic objects and events create higher energy radiation than cool objects. Only extremely hot objects or particles moving at very high velocities can create high-energy radiation like X-rays and gamma-rays.

Here are the different types of radiation in the EM spectrum, in order from lowest energy to highest:

	Radio: Yes, this is the same kind of energy that radio stations emit into the air for your boom box to capture and turn into your favorite Mozart, Madonna, or Justin Timberlake tunes. But radio waves are also emitted by other things ... such as stars and gases in space. You may not be able to dance to what these objects emit, but you can use it to learn what they are made of.
	Microwaves: They will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes! Microwaves in space are used by astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies, and our own Milky Way!
	Infrared: Our skin emits infrared light, which is why we can be seen in the dark by someone using night vision goggles. In space, IR light maps the dust between stars. Visible: Yes, this is the part that our eyes see. Visible radiation is emitted by everything from fireflies to light bulbs to stars ... also by fast-moving particles hitting other particles. Ultraviolet: We know that the Sun is a source of ultraviolet (or UV) radiation, because it is the UV rays that cause our skin to burn! Stars and other "hot" objects in space emit UV radiation.
	X-rays: Your doctor uses them to look at your bones and your dentist to look at your teeth. Hot gases in the Universe also emit X-rays .
	Gamma-rays: Radioactive materials (some natural and others made by man in things like nuclear power plants) can emit gamma-rays. Big particle accelerators that scientists use to help them understand what matter is made of can sometimes generate gamma-rays. But the biggest gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe! It makes gamma radiation in all kinds of ways.

A Radio Wave is not a Gamma-Ray, a Microwave is not an X-ray ... or is it?

We may think that radio waves are completely different physical objects or events than gamma-rays. They are produced in very different ways, and we detect them in different ways. But are they really different things? The answer is 'no'. Radio waves, visible light, X-rays, and all the other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are fundamentally the same thing. They are all electromagnetic radiation.

Radio waves, visible light, X-rays, and all the other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are fundamentally the same thing, electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic radiation can be described in terms of a stream of photons, which are massless particles each traveling in a wave-like pattern and moving at the speed of light. Each photon contains a certain amount (or bundle) of energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of these photons. The only difference between the various types of electromagnetic radiation is the amount of energy found in the photons. Radio waves have photons with low energies, microwaves have a little more energy than radio waves, infrared has still more, then visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and ... the most energetic of all ... gamma-rays.

Actually, the electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of energy, wavelength, or frequency. Each way of thinking about the EM spectrum is related to the others in a precise mathematical way. So why do we have three ways of describing things, each with a different set of physical units? After all, frequency is measured in cycles per second (which is called a Hertz), wavelength is measured in meters, and energy is measured in electron volts.

The electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of energy, wavelength, or frequency.

The answer is that scientists don't like to use big numbers when they don't have to. It is much easier to say or write "two kilometers or 2 km" than "two thousand meters or 2,000 m". So generally, scientists use whatever units are easiest for whatever they are working with. In radio astronomy, astronomers tend to use wavelengths or frequencies. This is because most of the radio part of the EM spectrum falls in the range from about 1 cm to 1 km (30 gigahertz (GHz) to 100 kilohertz (kHz)). The radio is a very broad part of the EM spectrum. Infrared astronomers also use wavelength to describe their part of the EM spectrum. They tend to use microns (or millionths of meters) for wavelengths, so that they can say their part of the EM spectrum falls in the range 1 to 100 microns. Optical astronomers use wavelengths as well. Scientists use both angstroms (0.00000001 cm, or 10 ^-8 cm in scientific notation) and nanometers (0.0000001, or 10^-7, cm). In the newer "SI" version of the metric system, we think of visible light in units of nanometers or 0.000000001 meters (10^-9 m). In this system, the violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red light we know so well has wavelengths between 400 and 700 nanometers. This range is only a small part of the entire EM spectrum, so you can tell that the light we see is just a little fraction of all the EM radiation around us! By the time you get to the ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray regions of the EM spectrum, lengths have become too tiny to think about any more. So scientists usually refer to these photons by their energies, which are measured in electron volts. Ultraviolet radiation falls in the range from a few electron volts (eV) to about 100 eV. X-ray photons have energies in the range 100 eV to 100,000 eV (or 100 keV). Gamma-rays then are all the photons with energies greater than 100 keV.

Show me a chart of the wavelength, frequency, and energy regimes of the spectrum !

Why Do We Have to Go to Space to See All of the Electromagnetic Spectrum?

Electromagnetic radiation from space is unable to reach the surface of the Earth except at a very few wavelengths, such as the visible spectrum, radio frequencies, and some ultraviolet wavelengths. Astronomers can get above enough of the Earth's atmosphere to observe at some infrared wavelengths from mountain tops or by flying their telescopes in an aircraft. Experiments can also be taken up to altitudes as high as 35 km by balloons which can operate for months. Rocket flights can take instruments all the way above the Earth's atmosphere for just a few minutes before they fall back to Earth, but a great many important first results in astronomy and astrophysics came from just those few minutes of observations. For long-term observations, however, it is best to have your detector on an orbiting satellite ... and get above it all!

imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov